Cornflower Ma Trading System

FOREX-Strategien Forex-Strategie, einfache Strategie, Forex Trading-Strategie, Forex Scalping Intraday Trading Forex-Strategie für 5-Minuten-Chart: Empfehlen Handel für diese Strategie auf Währungspaare EURUSD und GBPUSD, aber nicht mehr als 3 kommerzielle Transaktionen pro Tag. Und so, in einer 5-minütigen Preisliste: 1) Indikator 50 Einfacher bewegter Durchschnitt (SMA 50) 2) Indikator 21 Exponentieller Moving Average (EMA 21) 3) der 10 Exponential Moving Average (EMA 10) Der Eintritt zum Markt: Offene Handelsposition, sobald der Winkel von SMA mit einer Periode von 50 um 20 Grad übersteigt (siehe Grafik Nr. 1), und der Preis kommt zurück 8212 der Bereich zwischen der EMA mit einem Zeitraum von 21 und EMA mit einem Zeitraum von 10 Beispiel 8212 Abbildung 1, wir öffnen den Deal, um die Steigung der 50 SMA zu verkaufen. Set SL (6 Pips gespreizt) und TP (8-10 Pips). Wenn auf deiner Handelsposition 6 Pips gehabt werden, überträgt man sofort den SL auf brechen (denn das ist einfach nicht den hinteren Stopp auf einer Reise zu ersetzen). Nur ein paar Beispiele: Allgemeine Beschreibung Alle Lebewesen brauchen Enzyme, um das Leben zu erhalten. Der Körper hängt von Enzymen ab, um das Blut zu reinigen, die Fette zu brechen, den Dickdarm zu reinigen, den Cholesterinspiegel einzuhalten und die Peak-Energieniveaus zu halten. Lebensmittel-Enzyme sind nicht etwas Neues, aber seit der Zeit von Hippokrates bekannt zu sein. Es ist seit langem erkannt worden, dass Krankheit mit unsachgemäßer Ernährung und unzureichender Ernährung zusammenhängt und dass Fasten, Entsaften und Diäten, die reich an Kräutern und Rohkost sind, helfen, den Körper zur Gesundheit wiederherzustellen. Traditionelle Lebensmittel und ethnische Diäten mit Kräutern waren die Regel vor der Einführung von modernen verarbeiteten Lebensmitteln. Eine der längsten lebenden Populationen auf der Erde, die Hunz, bestand in erster Linie auf einer Rohkost-Diät, eine Diät reichlich mit Enzymen. Enzyme wirken in verschiedenen Temperatur - und pH-Werten je nach Art und Funktion und werden durch Kochen, einschließlich Mikrowellenöfen, leicht zerstört. Die Arbeit, die in Europa mit Rohkost-Diäten durchgeführt wird, zeigt, dass Patienten mit langjährigen degenerativen Erkrankungen in der Lage sind, bemerkenswerte Erholungen zu machen, und das National Institute of Health hat vor kurzem eine Studie veröffentlicht, die zeigt, dass das Essen kleinerer Mahlzeiten zu einem längeren Leben führt. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass unsere intrinsische Enzymproduktion besser in der Lage ist, auf kleinere Ernährungslasten aufzupassen als eine größere Nahrungsaufnahme. Was Enzyme sind Enzyme sind komplexe Protein-Moleküle, die in jeder Zelle in Ihrem Körper gefunden werden. Enzyme können aktiviert werden und sind in der Lage, spezifische Aufgaben wie die Produktion von Energie oder Austausch von Sauerstoff und Kohlendioxid, wenn wir atmen. Sie sind in der Lage, Energie auf andere Moleküle zu übertragen, was es ihnen leichter macht, produziert zu werden und vom Körper zu nutzen, einen Dominoeffekt zu erzeugen und somit alle Körperfunktionen zu beschleunigen. Unser Körper enthält 1.300 verschiedene Enzyme, die Nährstoffe zerlegen, Zellen wieder aufbauen und den Körper dazu veranlassen, krankheitsfrei zu funktionieren. Das Verdauungssystem verwandelt Nahrung in Energie für die Verwendung von Bodys, indem sie komplexe Proteine, Fette und Kohlenhydrate in kleinere, einfachere und besser verwendbare Formen zerlegt. Ohne diese Umwandlung ist die Verdauung und Assimilation von Nährstoffen schwer unmöglich. Ihre Gesundheit ist mehr überfordert und missbraucht von Exzessen von verarbeiteten Lebensmitteln und Stimulanzien: gebackenes Mehl, Milchprodukte und Koffein, alkoholfreie Getränke, Zucker und Alkohol. Die Verdauung beginnt mit dem Anblick und Geruch von Nahrung, die die Sekretion von Enzymen stimuliert. Die Verkostung und das Kauen erlaubt die Sättigung des Speichelenzyms, Amylase, die die Stärke zum Glukose beim Kauen von Kartoffel oder Brot zerbricht. Der pH-Wert sinkt auf einen Säurebereich von nur vier oder fünf. Der obere Teil des Magens, der der Fundus genannt wird, verwendet weiterhin Amylase und andere Enzyme für die Vorverdünnung. Der Mageninhalt wird dann durch das Pylorusventil in den Dünndarm geleitet, wo es mit Pankreassäften vermischt wird. Diese Säfte sind reich an Enzymen wie Protease (Protein), Amylase (Stärke) und Lipase (Fett, Kocher). Sie werden weiter verdauen und Essen für die Assimilation vorbereiten. Die alkalische Natur der Bauchspeicheldrüsensekrete hilft, die Magensäuren zu neutralisieren (die bei der Verdauung helfen) und schützt den Dünndarm. Enzyme Natürlicher Schutz vor Krankheiten Enzyme haben eine große Wirkung auf die gesamte Immunfunktion. Weiße Blutzellen enthalten Verdauungsenzyme wie alkalische Phosphatase, Lipase, Protease, Amylase und Peptidase, die Teil der Pankreasäfte sind und nur ein Teil von vielen Enzymen sind, die die Immunfunktion erhöhen. Pankreatin enthält die Pankreasenzyme Amylase, Lipase und Trypsin. Diese nützlichen Pankreasenzyme helfen beim Abbau von Stärken, Fetten und Proteinen. Diese weißen Blutzellenenzyme wirken, um bakterielle und virale Proteine ​​zu zerstören (die Krankheiten verursachen können) und auch auf nicht ordnungsgemäß verdaute Nahrung einwirken. Es wurde gezeigt, dass die Konzentration der weißen Blutkörperchen im Magen und im Darm mit der Verdauung zunimmt, da weiße Blutzellenenzyme benötigt werden, um mit dem Zusammenbruch und der Assimilation von Lebensmitteln zu helfen. Eine Diät reich an rohem Essen, und mit Kräutern als Nahrung und Medizin ist reich an Enzymen, die das Essen im Magen, die die Bodys weiße Blutkörperchen Reserve vorhersagen vorhersagen. Dies ist der Grund, warum ein verminderter Appetit und eine Übelkeit oft einen Krankheitsverlauf begleitet. Auch Verdauung gekochte oder verarbeitete Lebensmittel erfordert Energie und weiße Blutkörperchen, die an anderer Stelle benötigt werden, um den Krankheitsverlauf zu bekämpfen. Die Gehirnchemie schaltet die Hunger-Mitte im Gehirn aus, sobald das Immunsystem bei der Spitzenfunktion sein kann, um den Krankheitsverlauf zu bekämpfen. Ernährungs-Enzym-Therapie Enzyme sind sehr nützlich bei der Behandlung von verschiedenen Krankheiten. Sie werden vom Körper als intakte Moleküle absorbiert und werden durch den Blutkreislauf an den Körper verteilt, wie nötig, um die bodys Bedürfnisse gegen den Krankheitsprozeß zu unterstützen. Bromelain Gefunden in Ananas wird verwendet, um Entzündungen bei Arthritis, Rheuma und Muskel-Skelett-Verletzung zu verringern. Es ist erwiesenermaßen wirksamer als üblicherweise vorgeschriebene nicht-steroidale entzündungshemmende Medikamente und hat keine toxischen Nebenwirkungen. Es empfiehlt sich, frische Ananas in kleinen Mengen zu verwenden oder in Wasser oder Saft zu verdünnen, da die Dosen oder Flaschen erhitzt und ihre Enzyme verloren haben. Zystische Fibrose ist eine Krankheit, in der die Bauchspeicheldrüse nicht genug Enzyme absondern kann. Dies begleitet gewöhnlich andere Drüsenerkrankungen, die die Schilddrüse, die Nebenniere, die Milz und andere Drüsen betreffen. Es toxisiert auch die Leber und kann mit Darmproblemen, Schlafstörungen, hormonellem Östrogen-Ungleichgewicht und Energieverlust zusammenhängen. Protease. Ist ein Enzym, das gezeigt wird, um die Metastase zu verlangsamen und zur Tumorschrumpfung beizutragen, während die Protease den Krebs schädigt. Lipase-Amylase Der jüngste Beweis zeigt, dass reiche Lipase - und Amylase-Konzentrationen im Blut zu einer Abnahme der arteriosklerotischen Plaques führen und so die Enzymtherapie gegen die Koronararterienerkrankung und die Atherosklerose verbessern. Alterung und Enzyme. Enzyme haben bewiesen, dass ältere Patienten mehr Energie, ein Gefühl von Wohlbefinden, bessere Nährstoff-Assimilation und Widerstand gegen Krankheiten zu geben. Alterung reduziert die Fähigkeit, Enzyme zu produzieren und Nährstoffe zu assimilieren und damit unsere Fähigkeit zu heilen. Enzymmangel. Defizite in Enzymen sind oft mit Magen-Darm-Erkrankungen, Verdauungsstörungen, periodisches Gas und Blähungen verbunden. Mahlzeiten, die schlafen im Magen bleiben für Stunden oder Tage kann ein Zeichen der Krankheit sein. Eine Bewertung durch Ihren Arzt wird benötigt, um die Ursache zu bestimmen. Kräuter-Enzym-Therapie kann die Heilung sein. Enzym-Supplementierung Die Verwendung von Enzymen als Ergänzung zu den Mahlzeiten ist seit einiger Zeit beliebt. Wir verbrauchen gekochte und verarbeitete Lebensmittel wie Fast-Food, die ernährungsphysiologisch unvollständig sind. Dies fügt der Belastung der Bauchspeicheldrüse und des Immunsystems hinzu, um verlorene Enzyme zu ersetzen, den Körper der Energieproduktion, der Enzymreserve und der Funktion zu berauben. Enzym-Supplementierung mit Mahlzeiten ist eine sehr gute präventive Maßnahme. Eine gute allgemeine Verdauungsformel, die auch dem Körper hilft, sich an sein korrektes Gewicht anzupassen und für den Gewichtsverlust großartig zu funktionieren, sollte Betain-HCI (erhöht Bauch-Säure), Pankreatin und Pancrelipase (verdaut Stärken, Fette, Proteine), Papain (verdaut Proteine) ), Pepsin (verdaut Proteine), Diatase (Digest Stärken) und Ox Galle (verdaut Fett). Viele Kräuter sind Enzymaktivatoren, die enzymatische Wirkung verstärken und verstärken, während sie Entzündungen reduzieren, Gas entfernen und die Verdauung erhöhen: Bockshornklee (Trigonella foenumgraecum) ist eines dieser Kräuter. Bockshornklee reinigt die bronchialen Passagen des Katarrhs ​​und andere Reizstoffe und Fremdstoffe. Es ist nützlich für alle Schleim-Bedingungen und für Lungenüberlastung beruhigend zu entzündeten Zuständen des Magens und des Darms und für Geschwüre, die als Umwälzung auf Wunden, entzündeten Gebieten, Furunkeln und Karbunkeln wirksam sind. Kann als Schmiermittel für den Darm, als Verdauungshilfe, für Fieber, Diabetes, Gicht und als Aphrodisiakum und Verjünger verwendet werden. Eine vorgeschlagene Dosierung von Bockshornklee ist zwei oder mehr 500 mg Kapseln, 10-15 Minuten vor den Mahlzeiten. Wenn mehr benötigt wird, sollten Sie Ihren Arzt konsultieren. Es ist wichtig, dass Ihr Arzt beständige Verdauungsprobleme ausgibt. Sri Lanka: Expedition auf die Insel der Juwelen Im Februar 2014 erforschten die Autoren Sri Lankarsquos ganze Bergwerks-Edelstein - und Schmuckindustrie. Das Team besuchte zahlreiche Bergbau-, Schneid-, Handels-, Schmuckherstellung und Einzelhandelszentren, die jeden Sektor repräsentierten und eine dynamische Mischung aus traditionellen und zunehmend modernen Praktiken erlebten. Jahrhunderte der Tradition als farbiger Edelstein Bergbau, Handel und Schneidquelle jetzt konvergieren mit den Technologien, Fähigkeiten und Strategien der heutigen globalen Markt. Sri Lanka ist einer der Mekka der Gemologie. Wenige Quellen, vor allem unter den aktiven Ortschaften, können ihre reiche Geschichte als Edelstein-Produzent und Handelszentrum zusammenbringen. Als Sri Lanka seinen Platz in der heutigen Juwel - und Schmuckindustrie einnimmt, kann der Gemologist eine Kombination aus traditionellen Methoden und modernen Technologien sowie neue Geschäftsstrategien für einen hart umkämpften Markt beobachten. Was primitiv zu sein scheint, sind oft sehr effizient und gut geeignet für die Aufgabe. Während die meisten Bergbauunternehmen kleine Operationen mit einfachen Handwerkzeugen betreiben, ermöglichen sie einen kontinuierlichen Bergbau, beschäftigen eine große Belegschaft und sind weniger umweltschädlich (Abbildung 1). Schneiden ist ein weiterer Sektor, in dem traditionelle Techniken immer noch vorherrschen, was eine ausgezeichnete Anfangsorientierung des groben Kristalls für maximale offene Farb - und Gewichtsretention bietet. Gleichzeitig wird ein hochqualifizierter Wiederaufbau in Sri Lanka internationale Marktstandards von Proportionen, Symmetrie und Helligkeit erreichen (Abbildung 2). Feines Präzisionsschneiden zu engen Toleranzen bei modernen lapidarischen Geräten wird auf kalibrierte Güter angewendet, die die strengsten Anforderungen erfüllen, einschließlich der Uhrenindustrie. Abbildung 1. Als Sri Lanka seine farbige Steinbergbauindustrie entwickelt, sind traditionelle Praktiken immer noch wirksam. Foto von Andrew Lucas. Während die kleinen Läden auf Schmuck-Fertigungstechniken wie handgeblasenes Löten angewiesen sind, verwenden moderne Fabriken verlorenes Wachs und Gussstücke sowie das Streicheln. Der Edelsteinhandel hat sich zum Teil aufgrund der handelsfreundlichen Import - und Exportbestimmungen entwickelt, wodurch die Sri Lanka-Käufer weltweit wettbewerbsfähiger sind. Die Einzelhandelsbranche findet weiterhin einen großen Binnenmarkt für traditionelle 22K Goldschmuck, während sie sich auf die vielfältigen Geschmäcker der jüngeren Sri Lankans und Touristen auswirken. Abbildung 2. Sri Lanka Lapidaries beinhalten traditionelle Techniken, modernes Präzisionsschneiden und hochqualifiziertes Recycling. Dieser Arbeiter hat jahrzehntelange Erfahrung, um Korund und Chrysoberyl zu schneiden und umzukehren. Foto von Andrew Lucas. Sri Lanka ist eine große Insel im Indischen Ozean, direkt an der Südspitze Indiens. Es misst 65.610 Quadratkilometer (40.768 Quadrat-Meilen), mit 1.340 Kilometern (832 Meilen) der Küstenlinie. Im Südwesten, wo der Großteil des Edelsteinbergbaus stattfindet, dauert die Monsunzeit von Juni bis Oktober. Sri Lanka befindet sich auf dem Weg der großen Handelswege im Indischen Ozean, ein Vorteil, der dazu beigetragen hat, es als eines der weltgrößten Edelsteinquellen zu etablieren. Neben Edelsteinen hat Sri Lanka natürliche Ressourcen von Kalkstein, Graphit, Mineralsand, Phosphate, Ton und Wasserkraft. Das Land ist auch bekannt für seinen Tee, Gewürze, Gummi und Textilien. Von der Gesamtbelegschaft sind 42,4 im Dienstleistungssektor beschäftigt, 31,8 in der Landwirtschaft und 25,8 in der Industrie, die Bergbau und Fertigung umfasst (CIA World Fact Book, 2014). Die touristische Industrie wird erwartet, um starkes Wachstum zu sehen, obgleich die vorhandene Infrastruktur kämpfen kann, um einen großen Zustrom von Besuchern zu solchen Attraktionen wie die Ruinen in Sigiriya, ein UNESCO-Weltkulturerbe (Abbildung 3), unterzubringen. Abbildung 3. Sigiriya, ein massiver Stein, der mehr als 200 Meter hoch steht, wurde in eine königliche Festung während der Herrschaft von König Kashyapa (477495 n. Chr.) Mit Palästen, Gärten, Schwimmbädern und Fresken verwandelt. Es ist eine bedeutende Touristenattraktion in Sri Lanka. Foto von Andrew Lucas. Sri Lankarsquos Wirtschaft hat seit 2009 ein starkes Wachstum erlebt, das das Ende eines 26-jährigen Bürgerkriegs markierte, der die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung lange geplagt hat. Die Landrsquos-Bevölkerung von fast 22 Millionen umfasst verschiedene Ethnien und Religionen, die sich in den Stilen der Schmuckstücke, die im Inland hergestellt und verkauft werden, widerspiegeln. Die Bevölkerung ist 73,8 Singhalesen, 7,2 Sri Lanka Moor, 4.6 Indian Tamil und 3.9 Sri Lanka Tamil (mit 10 unspezifiziert). Buddhisten machen 69,1 der Bevölkerung aus, Muslime 7.6, Hindus 7.1 und Christen 6.2 (CIA World Fact Book, 2014). Während Muslime und Hindus eine ausgeprägte Minderheit repräsentieren, haben sie eine reiche Schmucktradition, und die Autoren zeugen von der Bedeutung ihrer Kaufkraft im Einzelhandel. GEM TRADE HISTORY Edelsteingebrauch in Sri Lanka stammt mindestens 2.000 Jahre zurück. Die Edelstein-beladene Insel wurde im Sanskrit als Ratna Dweepa bezeichnet, dh ldquoIsland von Jewelsrdquo (Hughes, 2014). Frühe arabische Händler nannten es Serendib, das ist der Ursprung des Wortes ldquoserendipity. rdquo Bekannt bis 1972 als Ceylon, hat es eine reiche Geschichte als Quelle für wirtschaftlich wichtige Edelsteine, vor allem Saphir (Abbildung 4) und Katrsquos-Auge Chrysoberyl. Abbildung 4. Während Sri Lanka eine Vielzahl von geschätzten Edelsteinen produziert, ist Saphir das wichtigste kommerziell. Foto von Robert Weldon. Mit freundlicher Genehmigung von Bill Larson. James Emerson Tennent, ein Administrator des britischen Ceylon von 1846 bis 1850, stellte fest, dass die Mahavamsa (die große Chronik von Ceylon) einen gem-verkrusten Thron erwähnt, der von einem Naga König im Jahre 543 v. Chr. Besessen wurde, als die frühesten Berichte der Insel geschrieben wurden ( Hughes, 1997). Der römische Naturforscher Plinius der Ältere schrieb, dass Botschafter aus Taprobane, wie damals Sri Lanka bekannt war, von den schönen Edelsteinen während der Herrschaft des Kaisers Claudius von 41 auf 54 n. Chr. (Hughes, 1997) rühmte. Der griechische Astronom Ptolemäus verwies auf die Inselrsquos Beryl, Saphir und Gold im zweiten Jahrhundert n. Chr. (Hughes, 1997). Marco Polo reiste dort 1293 und bemerkte die Fülle von Edelsteinen, darunter Rubin, Saphir, Topas, Amethyst und Granat (Ariyaratna, 2013). Der berühmte arabische Forscher Ibn Battuta, der im 14. Jahrhundert besuchte, schrieb über die Vielfalt der Edelsteine, die er sah (Ariyaratna, 2013). Zwischen 500 und 1500 n. Chr. Wurde während der Herrschaft der alten und mittelalterlichen singhalesischen Könige der Bergbau, der Besitz und der Handel von Edelsteinen vom Monarchen kontrolliert. Arabische und persische Kaufleute kauften viele schöne Edelsteine. Während der Perioden der europäischen KolonisationmdashPortuguese (1505ndash1656), Niederländisch (1656ndash1796) und britischen (1796ndash1948) mdashgem Commerce erweitert über die königliche Familie, da die Europäer waren nur interessiert in Handel und Gewinn (Mahroof, 1997). Europäische Händler brachten mehr von diesen Waren in den Westen und förderten die Inselrsquos Reputation als eine Quelle von Edelsteinen und Fachwissen. Während des 20. Jahrhunderts sank Sri Lankarsquos als erstes Juwel-Handelszentrum. Dies war auf zahlreiche Faktoren zurückzuführen: die Entstehung anderer Quellen, ein Versagen, sich anzupassen und die Technik wie Wärmebehandlung und modernes Schneiden zu beherrschen, und Regierungsvorschriften, die das rasche Wachstum von Thailand und anderen Ländern behinderten. In den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten hat Sri Lanka diese Rückschläge überwunden und hat nun eine dynamische, schnell wachsende Edelstein - und Schmuckindustrie. Abbildung 5. Der 423 ct Logan Saphir ist einer von vielen berühmten Steinen aus Sri Lanka. Foto von Chip Clark mit freundlicher Genehmigung der Smithsonian Institution. Sri Lanka ist bekannt für seinen großen, außergewöhnlichen Saphir und Sternkorund. Wichtige Steine, die aus Sri Lanka gemeldet wurden, sind (Ariyaratna, 2013): der 466 ct Blaue Riese des Orients, angeblich aus dem Ratnapura-Gebiet im Jahre 1907 den 423 ct Logan blauen Saphir (Abb. 5) und den 138 ct Rosser Reeves Stern Rubin abgebaut , Die beide in der Smithsonian Institutionrsquos Nationalmuseum für Naturgeschichte der 400 ct Blue Belle von Asien untergebracht wurden, wurden auf einem Reisfeld im Bezirk Ratnapura im Jahre 1926 gefunden und beschrieben als mit der höchst wünschenswerten ldquocornflowerrdquo blaue Farbe der 363 ct Star Von Lanka, im Besitz der Nationalen Edelstein - und Schmuckbehörde der 850 ct Stolz des Sri Lanka blauen Saphirs, fand in Ratnapura im Juni 1998 den 563 ct grau-blauen Stern von Indien, der eigentlich in Sri Lanka entdeckt und dem amerikanischen Museum von gespendet wurde Naturgeschichte im Jahr 1900 von JP Morgan der 12 ct blauen Saphir im Verlobungsring von Diana, Prinzessin von Wales, die jetzt von der Herzogin von Cambridge getragen wird, Kate Middleton DIE EXPEDITION Das Ziel dieser Studie war es, die gesamte Sri Lanka gefärbt zu dokumentieren Edelsteinindustrie von mir bis zum Markt. Während viele vergangene Artikel auf Geologie und Bergbau konzentriert haben, haben wir uns entschieden, das gesamte Spektrum zu decken, einschließlich Bergbau, Import und Export, Schneiden, Behandlung, Schmuckherstellung und Einzelhandel. Wir wollten uns sehr auf unsere eigenen Beobachtungen für alle Sektoren verlassen. Wir suchten direkte Mitteilungen mit Branchenführern und Fachbesitzern. Durch umfangreiche Reisen und zahlreiche Besuche zu verschiedenen Operationen und Unternehmen, haben wir das ganze Bild zusammengestellt. Hunderte von Stunden Videomaterial und Interviews und mehr als 7.000 Fotos dokumentierten alle Aspekte der Branche in Sri Lanka. Unsere erste Station war in den Büros der Sapphire Capital Group, wo wir sahen Sri Lanka Händler als Experten Berater für ausländische Käufer. Für einen ganzen Tag sahen wir einen Käufer aus Neuseeland Kaufpaket nach Paket von Saphir und anderen Edelsteinen von Händlern, die sein lokaler Kontakt arrangiert hatte (Abbildung 6). Als er seine Saphire wählte, würde der ausländische Käufer die Sri Lankaner darüber berichten, wie die Steine ​​rezitieren würden. Dort haben wir auch das hochqualifizierte Nacharbeiten von Saphir und Katrsquos-Augen-Chrysoberyl gefangen. Abbildung 6. Ausländische Käufer verlassen sich oft auf einen vertrauenswürdigen lokalen Händler, um andere Händler zu bringen, um ihre Waren zu präsentieren. Die lokalen Ansprechpartner beraten ihre ausländischen Kunden bei Kaufentscheidungen und Rekrutierung. Foto von Andrew Lucas. In den nächsten Tagen haben wir den Großhändlern, Einzelhändlern und Schneidanlagen in Colombo besucht. Bei Precision Lapidaries haben wir einen Einblick in die moderne Sri Lanka Edelsteinschneidindustrie gemacht, die Präzision und Qualität hervorhebt. Unsere erste Reise außerhalb von Colombo war zum Wochenendmarkt in Beruwala, was besonders beschäftigt war (Abbildung 7). Wir konnten die Kunst des Straßenhandels in Sri Lanka sehen, zusammen mit Handelsaktivitäten in den Büros. Wir haben auch traditionelle Fräser und einen Spezialisten in der Wärmebehandlung von Saphir interviewt. Abbildung 7. Die Straßenszene in Beruwala war voller Handelsaktivitäten. Foto von Andrew Lucas. Unser nächster Halt war der berühmte Edelsteinmarkt in der Nähe von Ratnapura, wo der Handel auf den Straßen noch schwerer war als in Beruwala. Wir konnten zahlreiche Büros und traditionelle Schneid - und Behandlungseinrichtungen besuchen. Nachdem wir mehrere Stunden auf dem Markt in Ratnapura verbracht hatten, erforschten wir die Grube im Bergbau. Bei Balangoda sahen wir drei mechanisierte Bergbau-Operationen und interviewten mehrere Bergleute. Wir konnten auch einen Flussabbau beobachten. An diesem Punkt in unserer Reise hatten wir die drei wichtigsten Arten der Edelstein-Erholung in Sri Lanka beobachtet: (1) Grubenbergbau, einschließlich der einfachen engen Gruben mit Galerien und kleinen offenen Operationen, beide von Hand gearbeitet (2) mechanisierten Bergbau in Offene Gruben, mit Tieflöffeln oder Bulldozer für Graben und Schleusen zum Waschen und (3) traditionellen Flussabbau. In Elahera, einem anderen berühmten Ort auf unserer Route, beobachteten wir eine mechanisierte Operation und traditionellen Grubenbergbau. Zurück in Colombo hatten wir drei Tage Zeit, um andere Schneidanlagen, Großhändler und Einzelhändler, moderne und traditionelle Schmuckhersteller und das berühmte Juwel und Schmuckdrehkreuz der Sea Street zu erkunden. GEM DEPOSITS Die Klassifikation der Sri Lankarsquos Edelsteinablagerungen ist in Abbildung 8 zusammengefasst. Die meisten Edelsteinablagerungen sind von sedimentärer Natur, obwohl es einige primäre Ablagerungen im Zusammenhang mit metamorphen und magmatischen Gesteinen gibt. Der regionale andor-Kontakt-Metamorphismus begünstigte die Bildung von Korund und Spinell durch Entfernen von Siliciumdioxid und Wasser, wobei Aluminium - und Magnesium-tragende Silikate in Oxide umgewandelt wurden. Pegmatiten sind die bedeutendste magmatische Quelle der sri-lankischen Edelsteine, die unter anderem Beryl, Turmalin, Korund und Mondstein beherbergen. Der berühmteste Pegmatit ist die Mondsteinablagerung bei Meetiyagoda, im südlichen Sri Lanka (Dissanayake und Chandrajith, 2003). Mendis et al. (1993) stellte fest, dass viele Ablagerungen entlang struktureller Merkmale wie Störungen, Falten und Scherzonen verteilt sind. Obwohl diese Strukturen die Verteilung von Edelsteinablagerungen beeinflussen können, bleibt es unklar, ob sie genetisch verwandt sind. Abbildung 8. Wichtige Klassen in Sri Lanka und die entsprechenden Bergbaugebiete. Von Dissanayake und Chandrajith (2003). Kasten A: Eine verwandte Erdgeschichte Die Insel Sri Lanka wurde mit einigen der reichsten Edelsteinablagerungen auf dem Planeten gesegnet. Metamorphismus, der durch eine Reihe von Bergbau-Veranstaltungen erzeugt wurde, führte zu dem Juwel, den wir heute sehen. Vor dem bekannten Pangaea gab es in der frühen Geschichte von Earthrsquos mehrere Superkontinente. Die Versammlungs - und Trennzyklen dieser Superkontinente sind die Motoren, die die meisten der Weltrsquos-Edelsteinablagerungen bilden (Abbildung A-1), und einige dieser Ereignisse sind eng mit der Edelsteinbildung in Sri Lanka verwandt. Fast neun Zehntel Sri Lankas wird von hochgradigen metamorphen Gesteinen des präkambrischen Zeitalters unterlegt. Neoshydymium und Rubidium-Strontium-Dating (siehe Milisenda et al., 1988 Kroumlner und Williams, 1993) zeigen ein Alter zwischen 1.000 und 3.000 Millionen Jahren (Ma) an. Der Supercontinent Rodinia, der Vorgänger von Pangea, versammelte sich zwischen 1300 und 900 Ma (Li et al. 2008), so dass der Protolith dieser hochgradigen metamorphen Gesteine ​​von früheren Superkontinenzzyklen geerbt worden sein muss. McMenamin und McMenamin (1990) als Rodinia die ldquomotherrdquo aller nachfolgenden Kontinente. Mehr als 75 der planetrsquos Landmasse zu dieser Zeit hatte sich zu Rodinia gebildet, aber gigantische Größe nicht zur Stabilität für den Superkontinent zu übersetzen. Wegen der Wärmedämmung, die durch die riesige Landmasse verursacht wurde, passierte die erste Trennung von Rodinia bei etwa 750 Ma am westlichen Rand von Laurentia. Das Rennen zwischen Amazonia und dem südöstlichen Rand von Laurentia begann etwa zur gleichen Zeit (Li et al., 2008). Während Rodinia zerbrach, begannen die einzelnen Kontinente von Gondwanaland zusammen zu kommen. Gondwanaland wurde zwischen 950 und 550 Ma zusammengestellt (Kroumlner, 1991). Detritische Zirkon-Altersverteilungen zeigen, dass die globale Pan-afrikanische Orogenie ihren Höhepunkt zwischen 800 und 600 Ma (Rino et al., 2008) erreicht hat. Diese Orogenese bildete eine der längsten Bergketten in der Geschichte von Earthrsquos: der Mosambikgürtel, der vom heutigen Mosambik bis Äthiopien und dem Sudan reicht und auch die meisten Madagaskar, die Südspitze Indiens, Sri Lankas und die Ostküste der Antarktis umfasst. Dieser Gürtel, eine Schub - und Faltzone, die den Knotenpunkt zwischen Ost - und West-Gondwanaland markiert, ist auch ein Mineralgürtel. Der heutige Sri Lanka besetzte eine zentrale Position in diesem Gürtel. Uran-Blei-Geochronologie zeigt, dass die Zirkone von Sri Lankarsquos hochgradigen metamorphen Gesteinen bei 550 Ma einen signifikanten Pb-Verlust verzeichneten und ein neues Wachstum von Zirkon, Monazit, Rutil und Granat zwischen 539 und 608 Ma (Kroumlner und Williams, 1993) auftrat. Dies sind die Daten des Nah-Peak-Metamorphismus, die die Edelsteine ​​in diesem Land geschaffen haben. Abbildung A-1. Der Superkontinent Rodinia wurde vor 900 Millionen Jahren gegründet und begann etwa 150 Millionen Jahre später auseinander zu brechen. Einige seiner Fragmente wurden wieder zusammengesetzt, um Gondwanaland zu bilden, der später Teil des superkontinenten Pangaea wurde. Südamerika, Afrika, Madagaskar, Indien, Sri Lanka, Antarktis und Australien waren einmal in Gondwanaland verbunden. Angepasst von Li et al. (2008) und Dissanayake und Chandrajith (1999). Fast alle Sri Lankarsquos Quellen sind alluvial, mit reichen Konzentrationen von gem-tragenden Schotten genannt Illam (Abbildung 9). Neben Saphiren, eine Vielzahl von anderen Edelsteinen werden von der Illam, einschließlich Spinell, Katrsquos-Auge Chrysoberyl und Mondstein erholt. Es wurden nur sehr wenige wichtige Ablagerungen gefunden. Einer wurde bei Unfall beim Straßenbau im Jahr 2012 nahe der Stadt Kataragama entdeckt (Dharmaratne et al., 2012 Pardieu et al. 2012). Der Saphir-Fund war sehr wertvoll, geschätzt auf US100 Millionen oder höher, so dass die Regierung versteigert umgebenden Grundstücke für den Bergbau. Obwohl diese kleinen Grundstücke für den höchsten Preis für die Bergbau-Lizenzen in Sri Lanka verkauft wurden, wurden später keine kommerziell wertvollen Einlagen gefunden. Aber eine vollständige geologische Untersuchung der Einzahlung ist noch nicht durchgeführt worden, so dass das wahre Potential von Kataragama noch unbekannt ist (V. Pardieu, pers. Komm. 2014). Etwa 10 bis 15 Primärlager von Saphir wurden in den letzten 20 Jahren entdeckt, alle zufällig (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, pers. Comm. 2014). Abbildung 9. Die meisten sri-lankischen Edelsteine ​​sind von gem-tragenden Kies bekannt als illam. Die Kies werden mit der Hoffnung gewaschen, einen Schatz in dem schwereren Material zu entdecken, das in der Bergmannshand zurückgelassen wurde. Foto von Andrew Lucas. Der alluviale Bergbau wird in Gebieten mit einer Geschichte der Edelsteinproduktion durchgeführt. Es gibt viele solcher Gebiete im zentralen bis südlichen Teil der Insel. Wegen der Natur der alluvialen Minenablagerungen können konzentrierte Edelstein-tragende Schotter zurückgelassen werden. Die alluvialen Kies von Ratnapura und Elahera können Proben aus verschiedenen Arten von Primärlagerstätten enthalten (Groat und Giuliani, 2014). Kristalle, die an oder in der Nähe der ursprünglichen Quellfelsen gefunden werden, können schön geformt werden, wie die bei Kataragama (Abbildung 10). Kristalle, die längere Strecken transportiert wurden, wie die in Ratnapura gefundenen Exemplare, sind meist abgerundete Kieselsteine ​​(Zwaan, 1986). Abbildung 10. Dieser Saphirglas stammt aus der Primärlagerstätte bei Kataragama. Foto von Vincent Pardieu Die Prospektion in Sri Lanka ist selten wissenschaftlich. Bei der Auswertung eines Gebietes ist die traditionelle Methode, einen langen Stahlstab in den Boden zu fahren (Bild 11). Die Prospektoren untersuchen das Ende des Stabes für Kratzer und Markierungen aus dem Kontakt mit Quarz und Korund, und für Kies stecken daran. Manche können sogar den Klang unterscheiden, den es macht. Diese Methode kann auch bei der Bestimmung der Tiefe, Zusammensetzung, Größe, Charakter und Farbe der Illam (Ariyaratna, 2013) helfen. Abbildung 11. Die traditionelle Methode der Prospektion in Sri Lanka beinhaltet das Fahren eines Stahlstabes in den Boden und untersucht ihn für Kratzer und Markierungen aus Quarz und Korund. Foto mit freundlicher Genehmigung von Janka Hemachandra. Mit mehr als 103 natürlichen Flussgebieten, die 90 der Landrsquos Landmasse (Dissanayake und Chandrajith, 2003) abdecken, gibt es zahlreiche Orte für Edelsteine, die sich in Kies konzentrieren. Ablagerungen von Korund und anderen Edelsteinen sind bekannt, um in den südlichen zwei Drittel der Insel auftreten (Hughes, 1997). Wir besuchten die Bergbaugebiete um Ratnapura, Balangoda und Elahera. Obwohl diese nur ein kleiner Prozentsatz der Sri Lankarsquos Edelstein-Einlagen sind, gaben sie einen repräsentativen Überblick über den Bergbau im ganzen Land. Alle diese sind sekundäre Kiesablagerungen, die keine Primärlagerstätten finden konnten. Kasten B: Lokale Geologie Im Einklang mit der von Cooray (1994) vorgeschlagenen Nomenklatur kann der präkambrische Keller Sri Lankas in vier Einheiten aufgeteilt werden: der Highland Complex (HC), der Vijayan Complex (VC), der Wanni Complex (WC), Und der Kadugannawa Komplex (KC). Die meisten Edelsteinablagerungen befinden sich in der HC, die sich nordöstlich nach Südwesten erstreckt (Abbildung B-1). Gefunden innerhalb der VC sind klippes (Insel-ähnliche, isolierte Fragmente einer Übertrage-Gesteinsschicht) von der HC. Einer von Sri Lankarsquos wurde in den Kataragama klippe (Pannipitiye et al. 2012) zufällig einige primäre Saphirminen entdeckt. Der Hochland-Komplex enthält hochgradige metamorphe Gesteine ​​wie pelitische Gneise, Metaquartzit, Marmor und Charnockit-Gneis (Cooray, 1994). Felsen in der HC haben die höchste Klasse der Metamorphose (Granulite Fazies), und der Komplex ist jünger als die VC im Osten und Süden. Der Kontakt zwischen diesen beiden Komplexen ist ein Schubfehler, der nach Westen und Nordwesten eintaucht, mit dem HC oben. Dieser Schubfehler ist auch eine große tektonische Grenze, die als Nahtzone interpretiert wird, die den Endpunkt zwischen West - und Ost-Gondwanaland bei etwa 550 Ma markiert (Kroumlner, 1991). Die VC besteht aus Migmatiten, granitischen Gneis, Granitoiden und verstreuten Metasedimenten (Cooray, 1994). Im Westen der HC liegt das WC mit Migmatiten, Gneisen, Metasedimenten und Granitoiden. Die Natur und die genaue Lage des Kontaktes zwischen WC und HC ist noch nicht gut definiert (Cooray, 1994). Der kleinere KC befindet sich in den langgestreckten synformalen Becken um Kandy. Hornblende und Biotit-Hornblende Gneis sind die Hauptfelsen im KC (Cooray, 1994). Anders als diese präkambrischen Kellereinheiten sind die nördlichen und nordwestlichen Küsten der Insel von dem mallzänischen Kalkstein, den quaternären roten Betten und den klaren Sedimenten und den letzten Sedimenten (Dissanayake, 1986) bedeckt. Abbildung B-1. Vereinfachte geologische Karte von Sri Lanka zeigt die wichtigsten Keller Einheiten und großen Edelstein Ablagerungen. Angepasst von Sajeev und Osanai (2004) und Dissanayake und Chandrajith (1999). Während die moderne Bergbauindustrie die Erholung mit den schnellsten Mitteln fördert, umarmt Sri Lanka fast die entgegengesetzte Philosophie. Der Bergbau erfolgt in erster Linie durch Handarbeit. Die National Gem und Jewelshylery Authority (NGJA), die Regulierungsbehörde, die Minenlizenzen ausstellt, ist in ihren Anforderungen für den mechanisierten Bergbau sehr streng. Diese Strategie hält etwa 60.000 bis 70.000 Edelstein-Bergleute kontinuierlich beschäftigt (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, Pers. Comm. 2014). The predecessor to the NGJA was the State Gem Corporation, which established regional offices and took control of mining licenses and guidelines in 1972. Its regulations for the gem industry supported legal mining operations (Dharmaratne, 2002). Sri Lanka issued 6,565 gem mining licenses in 2013. Mining licenses must be renewed every year, and the number has steadily increased since 2009, when the NGJA granted about 4,000 of them. Many of these licenses are for small areas, half an acre to two acres. Each can accommodate two to four traditional pits, with about 7 to 10 miners per pit deeper pits may accommodate 10 to 15 miners. This system has maintained a fairly constant number of active mines over the years. Once a mining area is finished, the shaft or open pit must be filled in according to regulations enforced by the NGJA. These environmental measures pertain to loose gravel contaminating the surrounding water, damage to the landscape, and holes filled with stagnant water, a breeding ground for malaria-bearing mosquitos. Pit Mining. In Sri Lanka, pit mining is the traditional mining method and by far the most widespread. More than 6,000 of the current licenses are for pit mines, compared to approximately 100 licenses for river mining and 10 for mechanized mining (P. G.R. Dharmashyratne, pers. comm. 2014). We witnessed numerous pit mining operations, all excellent demonstrations of the processes described to us by industry leaders. Miners are actually shareholders in such operations, receiving a small stipend and a percentage of the rough stone sales. As shareholders, they need little or no supervision. Several other people are involved in such a venture, including the landowner, the holder of the mining rights, and the person who supplies the pump to dewater the pit they typically receive 20, 10, and 10 of the sales, respectively. The rest of the revenue is split among the financial stakeholders and the miners (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, pers. comm. 2014). To give an idea of scale, a standard pit mine in Sri Lanka consists of a two by four meter opening at the surface (figure 12). If the pits are deep and located in harder ground, the miners may choose smaller dimensions. The vertical shafts generally range from 5 to 25 meters deep. The pits are created by first digging the opening to about a meter deep. The next step is making a wooden frame of timbers slightly taller than the depth of the pit. The miners place the first set of four timbers into the pit wall, which is grooved for a secure fit. Vertical struts of timber are wedged between the crossbeams. Branches and foliage help shore up the pit walls from water erosion, and timber braces are used in the center (figure 13). This process continues down the depth of the pit about every meter, until the miners reach the gem-bearing gravel. At this point they create horizontal crawl tunnels about 1.5 meters in height, called galleries, from the pit into the gem-bearing gravel. The length of these tunnels varies depending on the extent of the illam, but often reaches 5 to 10 meters. The galleries extending from the pit are interconnected with other tunnels. This leaves some areas of illam that cannot be mined because they are needed for structural support. Buckets of gravel are either passed to the surface or hauled up by rope on a manual winch. Some pits have a wood and branch rooftop to shield the miners from the intense sunlight. A pit with an opening wider than the traditional two by four meters is more like a very small open pit (also called an open cast), but it is still worked by manual labor. We witnessed some of these operations in Ratnapura and Elahera. Usually there were a half dozen people working in each pit. At least one miner at the bottom would shovel the illam into a woven bamboo basket held by another miner. That person would toss the basket to another miner, slightly higher up in the pit, who simultaneously tossed back an empty basket, like a perfectly harmonized juggling act. This process continued through several miners until the illam-filled basket reached the top, where it was dumped into a pile for washing. The accumulated mound of gem-bearing gravel could be covered with leafy branches, similar to those used to shore up the pit walls, to prevent rainwater from washing it away. Pit mines with a standard two by four meter shaft opening follow a similar process for removing the illam, but often using a manually operated winch for hauling buckets to the surface (figure 14). In both examples, the illam is either washed in a nearby reservoir by simple panning or removed to a more sophisticated washing facility featuring a sluice. The sluices are often modified from Australian designs, as they are in other parts of the world. The washed gem-bearing gravel is called dullam (Zwaan, 1982), which is also the term for the smaller, lower-quality gems picked from washing baskets and usually given to miners to sell. While rain caused the erosion that created the amazingly rich gem gravels of Sri Lanka, it also poses a significant obstacle to the mining process. Pits quickly fill up with rainwater that must be removed. This is often done by a pump, which is much faster than old-fashioned methods. Substantial rains can also cause erosion damage to the pits. We saw this at several locations, having arrived after fairly heavy rains. With around 6,500 mining licenses issued annually and around four or five pits in each mine, at any given time there could be 20,000ndash25,000 active pits in Sri Lanka. With extensive mining over the past 50 years, more than a million pits may have been dug altogether. Compared to many African mining countries, very few abandoned pits are left unfilled. This is because the NGJA collects a cash deposit upon issuing a mining license. If the mine owner fails to rehabilitate the land, the NGJA keeps the deposit for that purpose (P. G.R. Dharmaratne, pers. comm. 2014). Mechanized Mining. Only a limited number of mechanized mining licenses are issued in Sri Lanka each year. They may be granted if the concentration of gemstones is not high enough to make pit mining viable, or if there is a serious threat of illicit mining. To avoid large rushes of illicit miners to a rich discovery, the government may block access to the area or issue a mechanized mining license so the deposit can be mined quickly and legally (P. G.R. Dharmashyratne, pers. comm. 2014). Mechanized mining speeds the removal of overburden soil and the recovery of gem-bearing gravel for washing. Most mechanized mines in Sri Lanka are relatively small open-pit operations. Overburden soil sometimes contains dispersed gemstones, and it too may be washed. At mechanized operations, the illam is washed by sluices to keep up with the production (figure 15). Mechanized operations in Sri Lanka must also pay a deposit for the rehabilitation of the land. Figure 15. Mechanized mining in Sri Lanka usually includes washing the illam. Trucks move the gravel, which backhoes load into a sluice for washing. Photo by Andrew Lucas. While mechanized mining operations may use bulldozers, backhoes, excavators, front-loaders, trucks, and sluices for washing, they are still small-scale compared to those in other countries. The mechanized mining licenses are often issued by auction from the NGJA in blocks measuring 30 square meters. We witnessed three mechanized mining operations near Balangoda. The largest was an open-pit operation about 60 meters deep on a property covering 50 acres (figure 16). It had four excavators, two washing sluices, and a few trucks. The excavators at the bottom of the pit loaded the trucks with gem-bearing gravel. The trucks climbed the roads on the pit benches back to the top to the washing operations. The four excavators worked in tandem to move the gravel up the pit until the highest one loaded the trucks. Figure 16. This open-pit sapphire mine near Balangoda, a large one by Sri Lankan standards, had partially filled with water from rains the week before. Photo by Andrew Lucas. With global weather changes, Sri Lankan miners are finding that the rainy seasons are no longer as predictable. This interferes with mining operations, whether traditional or mechanized. At the time of our trip, rainwater had filled many of the pits and needed to be pumped out before mining could resume. The pit at the largest mechanized operation we visited took more than a week to dewater. River Mining. Although nowhere near as prevalent, river mining is also conducted in Sri Lanka. These areas may contain alluvial gem deposits where the river bends or otherwise slows down. The miners choose shallow waters and build a dam made of wood or rock where the stream slows, allowing the water to escape from one side of the dam but trapping the gravels. Using metal blades attached to long wooden poles called mammoties . the miners dredge the gravel until they reach the illam (figure 17). Long pointed steel rods are used to loosen the illam, which is dragged up and washed by the rushing water. Once any visible gemstones are removed, the remaining gravel may be further washed. We observed a river mining operation in Balangoda next to a tea plantation. There were four miners using mammoties to remove the illam, two miners washing gravels with baskets, and another removing larger rocks and building dams. Another miner would wade into the water to remove gravels and larger rocks. We did not see the use of mechanized or powered dredgers at any river mines. Gemstone cutting is another area where the traditional meets the modern in Sri Lanka. Centuries of experience in cutting corundum and other colored gemstones continue alongside new technologies and business models. The time-honored art of reading rough and orienting stones is integrated with the global marketrsquos growing demand for exact calibration, well-balanced proportions, and high-quality polish. Our team observed several examples of traditional and modern cutting, as well as some of the highest-precision cutting of colored gemstones we have ever witnessed. Numerous interviews with members of the Sri Lankan cutting industry revealed the interwoven nuances of blending the past, present, and future. There is still a relevant place for old-style cutters and their expertise, even as innovative companies are thriving. While Sri Lanka has seen some growth in diamond cutting, with 20 companies active in 2013mdashincluding De Beers sightholder Rosy Bluemdashmost of the activity is focused on colored stones, particularly sapphire. The number of licensed cutting businesses has increased only slightly over the last five years, from 174 to 192, though today there are larger, more modern lapidary companies. Traditional Cutting. While the West and Japan sometimes view traditional cutting in Sri Lanka as outdated and not up to modern global proportion and symmetry standards, one can still appreciate the craft. These cutters use a bow to power a vertical lap, often holding the stone by hand or with a handheld dop as they cut and polish (figure 18). They have a high degree of skill in orienting rough gemstones to achieve the best face-up color while retaining weight. Decades and even centuries of knowledge have been passed down on orienting sapphires and other gemstones such as catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl. Of all the cutting steps for colored stones, orienting the rough to display the best color through the table requires the highest skill, especially with valuable rough where weight retention is foremost. For high-quality sapphires, this method is still preferred by Sri Lanka cutters, especially for preforming. Figure 18. While their equipment appears primitive, Sri Lankan cuttersrsquo knowledge of orienting rough sapphire transcends technology and generations. Careful orientation to optimize color is a critical skill. Photo by Andrew Lucas. While blue sapphire often displays its best color through the c-axis, a skilled cutter can make slight angle adjustments to the table and still achieve a fine color with higher weight yield. If this is not done at the initial orientation, multiple recuts may be needed to get the right orientation of the table. With the orientation properly set, the recut produces a beautiful stone with minimum weight loss. For example, a 22 ct blue sapphire that is properly oriented for face-up color can be recut to close windows and optimize proportions and symmetry, while keeping the stone above 20 ct. If the orientation or proportions of a blue sapphire cause a reduction of color, the stonersquos value suffers accordingly. This is especially true for light - to medium-tone blue sapphires, where even a 5 to 10 reduction of color diminishes the value more than a 5 to 10 weight reduction. Precision Cutting and Free Size Cutting. For Sri Lanka to become a leader in the colored stone trade, its cutting industry must meet the specific needs of the global market, where customers from different countries require a wide variety of cutting specifications and tolerances. In Sri Lanka, many fine-quality sapphires over one carat are cut as free sizes. The cutting is performed to minimize windowing and yield pleasing proportions and symmetry rather than exact calibrated measurements. This allows weight retention on more valuable material while creating a beautiful stone with high brilliance. This is essentially a cost decision. It is less expensive to adjust mountings from the standard 12 times 10, 10 times 8, and 9 times 7 mm sizes than to lose weight from valuable gem material. With larger fine-quality material, sizing considerations always give way to beauty and weight retention. Even customers of calibrated sapphires have a range of tolerances. Some can accept a tolerance range as wide as 0.5 mm. For instance, sapphires cut to 7 times 5 mm sizes can vary up to 7.5 times 5.5 mm for some clients. Others have stricter tolerances, such as 0.2 mm, based on their jewelry manufacturing and mounting requirements. Some cutting companies offer tolerances of 0.1 mm or less (figure 19). Figure 19. The girdle outline of this sapphire is being cut to precise calibrated measurements for jewelry manufacture. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Precision Lapidaries. In Colombo, our team visited Precision Lapidaries and interviewed managing director Faiq Rehan. We also spoke with Saman K. Amarasena, vice chairman of the lapidary committee of the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association and owner of Swiss Cut Lapidary. On both occasions, we gained insights on the state of precision cutting in Sri Lanka. Despite being a fifth-generation member of the gem industry, Rehan started Precision Lapidaries in 1990 with a business model that was unconventional for Sri Lanka. Rather than cutting only large stones and selling them individually, he specialized in bulk quantities of calibrated cuts, applying the precision standards he had learned years earlier while cutting diamonds. The new company soon received large orders for calibrated sapphires in 2 to 4 mm princess cuts from Japanese clients who constantly pushed for tighter precision and higher quality. In expanding his business, Rehan preferred to hire young people directly out of school and train them to cut sapphire to his exacting standards. This philosophy was unusual in Sri Lanka, where cutters often come from a long line of cutters with deeply ingrained procedures and standards. As he entered the American market, Rehan found buyers wanting much larger quantities of stones cut at a much faster rate. They did not share the Japanese appreciation for precision measurements and higher quality of symmetry and polish. Rehan did not want to abandon his standards of precision and quality, however. He found that serving a high-quality niche market, rather than having a large inventory full of product similar to what was already available, allowed for constant inventory turnover. Rehan believes that the high-end and commercial markets in the United States and elsewhere are moving toward stricter precision and cut quality, and he has expanded his business to fill this demand. Many others are doing the same, and this is changing how the world views the Sri Lankan cutting industry. China now requires very bright stones with no windows or dark areas, as well as excellent proportions and symmetry. Chinese demand for its massive jewelry manufacturing industry has helped fuel the growth of precision cutting in Sri Lanka. The actual production model at Precision Lapidaries is also very different from many other cutting operations. Each cutter assumes full responsibility for a given stone instead of handing it off at different stages as in an assembly line. Some large-scale diamond cutting factories in India have also switched to this model to achieve higher quality standards through personal accountability (D. Pay, pers. comm. 2014). Using this model, Rehan treats his cutters more like partners, basing their compensation on both production and quality. Each cutter has an individual glass-walled workstation to eliminate distractions. A cutterrsquos typical output, using an already preformed and calibrated 8 times 6 mm oval as a benchmark, is 140 to 180 stones per eight-hour workday. The stones are tracked throughout the process and entered into a database. There are several quality control checks at the calibration stage (which requires tolerances of 0.1 mm or less), the faceting stages, and the finished product stage. The companyrsquos production manager noted that if any quality factors are not up to standards for calibration tolerance, facet symmetry, proportion variations, or polish, the stone is returned to the cutter with a repair order. Another nontraditional practice at Precision Lapidaries is its use of detailed inventory and grading reports, the kind favored by large diamond cutting companies. While there was initial resistance, over time customers became comfortable with the information contained in these reports. Each one itemizes a parcel by shape, weight, cutting style, color, and other quality factors. Established customers can review the reports to make buying decisions and place orders, even through the Internet. Swiss Cut Lapidary, which supplies the watch industry with colored gemstones, also stakes its reputation on precision and accuracy. The luxury watch industry requires very small stones cut with a high degree of precision, including very tight proportion tolerances for crown height, pavilion depth, and crown angle. Swiss Cut Lapidary cuts round faceted stones below 1 mm, and even down to 0.35 mm for ladiesrsquo watches. At these sub-millimeter sizes, each faceted stone has eight crown facets and eight pavilion facets. By achieving zero tolerances to the hundredth of a millimeter, the company is able to meet the stringent demands of watch manufacturers. In finished rounds below one millimeter, the size difference between the starting rough and the faceted stone is very slightmdashfor Amarasena, only 0.20 mm. In other words, for a round faceted stone of 0.50 mm, the rough can be as small as 0.70 mm. To achieve this level of precision, Mr. Amarasena first learned traditional cutting by hand before working with mechanical lapidary equipment for Japanese clients. To further his skills, he traveled to Germany and Spain, where he cut a variety of colored gemstones using modern machines and techniques. Upon returning to Sri Lanka with high-precision Swiss-made equipment, Amarasena purchased mine-cut sapphires and recut them to global market standards. In Europe he had seen many Sri Lankan sapphires being recut, so he knew the exact requirements. Figure 20. At Swiss Cut Lapidary, Saman Amarasena conducts quality control for the fitting of gemstones in a watch bezel. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Swiss Cut Lapidary. Amarasena also decided to shift his focus from recutting to unique designer cuts. At the annual Basel jewelry show, he noticed watches with small faceted gemstones set in the bezels. Back in Sri Lanka, he looked for small rough to use for cutting these stones. Rough chips were practically given to him because they were abundant and there was no real market for them. Amarasena faceted tiny precision stones from these chips in a wide variety of colors and tones, providing many options to watchmakers (figure 20). Although the rough costs slightly more today, its cost is minimal compared to the finished cut product. Micro-pave settings are another growing market for these precision-cut gemstones. Recutting. In Sri Lanka, some sapphires are initially cut with what has been termed a mine cut or native cut (figure 21). While the proportions and symmetry are not up to modern gem industry standards, the cutters execute a high degree of skill in orienting the rough primarily for weight retention. These stones are considered advanced preforms that can be recut to market-friendly proportions and symmetry without substantial weight loss. The ideal color orientation has already been applied, so many Sri Lankan dealers simply have them recut to close windows and remove excess depth from the pavilions while making the shapes less bulky and more appealing. Figure 21. This 6.76 ct mine cut sapphire has been oriented by a Sri Lankan cutter primarily for weight retention. It can be recut to meet global standards of proportion and symmetry. Photo by Robert Weldon. The same holds true for gemstones sold decades ago that are reentering the global market. Special care must be taken with stones that have deep pavilions. While the market prefers pavilions that are not overly deep, any reduction of color will lower the value considerably (figure 22). If the recut involves more substantial weight loss, then the calculations become more complicated, and every case is unique. If a 2.08 ct stone is to be recut to 1.80 ct, the buyer must decide if too much of the premium would be lost below the 2 ct size. Figure 22. The recutting of sapphire (left) requires great skill to close windows and improve symmetry, all while minimizing weight loss and retaining depth of color. Cats-eye chrysoberyl and star sapphire (right) are recut for better positioning of the effect. Photo by Andrew Lucas. These mine cuts from Sri Lanka were once exported to Thailand, the United States, and other countries to be recut to modern global standards. Eventually, Sri Lankan dealers realized they were missing out on a significant value-added service for their customers. Since the 1990s, they have provided that service, selling stones directly that meet the highest international cutting standards. Besides facet-grade sapphire, our team witnessed the recutting of catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl and star sapphire. The original mine cuts strongly favored weight retention over symmetry and placement of the catrsquos-eye or the star. Recutting was needed to reposition these effects to the center of the cabochon and add symmetry. The recutting also made for a straighter catrsquos-eye that moved more smoothly across the stone. While this involved some weight loss, it was often limited to a few points, and the final product would have significantly higher value on the global market. Japan was once the main market for catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, but that distinction now belongs to China. Much of Sri Lankarsquos gemstone trading industry is centered on sapphire. Traditionally this was limited to goods of domestic origin, but today sapphires from around the world are brought to Sri Lanka for enhancement and cutting. Most import and export businesses are family-owned and go back several generations. For example, the fifth-generation Sapphire Capital Group has more than 100 family members involved in the industry. In 2013 there were 4,429 gem dealing companies in Sri Lanka, only a slight increase since 2009. Yet the quantity and value of exports has risen sharply over those five years (table 1). Table 1 (PDF) During the 1970s and 1980s, Thailand emerged as the undisputed leader in corundum trading. Its facilities began mastering the art of heat treatment, purchasing corundum rough from around the world. This included Sri Lankan geuda sapphire, which is translucent and has a desaturated, often grayish color. As the Thais discovered, heating this material gives it a transparent, highly saturated blue color. Sri Lankan buyers considered the geuda rough virtually worthless and were slow to capitalize on the use of heat treatment to turn it into a very valuable gemstone (Kuriyan, 1994). Unlike their Thai counterparts, Sri Lankan buyers dealt primarily in domestically mined rough. Part of this had to do with the idea of preserving a national brand identity, but what really hindered them was a cumbersome import policy for rough. This changed in the mid-1990s when the government lifted import duties that had inhibited the purchase of corundum rough from other sources. Sri Lankan buyers have, in turn, established a strong presence in the marketplace, especially at global gem sources such as Madagascar and Mozambique. While the countryrsquos industry still capitalizes on the brand identity of domestic gems, the trade is much more open to gems mined elsewhere. The improvements in the Sri Lankan industry are timed perfectly to take advantage of the increased global demand for sapphire, particularly the Chinese colored stone market (ldquoChina becoming Sri Lankarsquos top gem buyer. rdquo 2011). As an example of the rise in sapphire prices over the last few decades, untreated top-quality blue sapphires sold in Sri Lanka can reach US15,000 to 20,000 per carat. Those are dealer to dealer prices. In 1969 similar stones would have sold for US400 to 1,000 per caratmdashapproximately 2,600 to 6,500 per carat, adjusted for inflation (N. Sammoon, pers. comm. 2014). Local Mining Area and Street Markets. The first major street market we toured was in Beruwala, 60 km south of Colombo. The gem trading area of Beruwala is also known as China Fort, named for the Chinese merchants who arrived about 300 years ago. Most of the dealing occurs within a single block, where there is constant activity of dealers on the street. This market is open on Saturday from 6:00 a. m. to 2:30 p. m. or later if there is strong activity. During our visit, the market was also busy on Sunday. At any given time, over 5,000 dealers may be active on the street and in the hundred or so officesmdashthe major dealers in Colombo have offices in Beruwalamdashoffering rough sapphire from the mines of Sri Lanka, as well as Africa and other global sources. We witnessed a flurry of trading activity. Sri Lankan dealers often traded rough among themselves on the street (figure 23). Once word got out of a foreign buyer in a dealerrsquos office, other dealers would come by with their stones. There were also traditional Sri Lankan cutters and heat treatment facilities in Beruwala. Just off the street was Emteem Gem Laboratory, where dealers could bring in stones for testing and identification. The demand for lab services has grown tremendously with the influx of foreign customers, especially Chinese buyers. One of the most sought-after services is the detection of heat treatment in corundum. This is also one of the most challenging identifications, especially if relatively low temperatures are used in the treatment. For corundum that has been subjected to very high temperatures, clients were advised to submit the stone to a foreign laboratory with more sophisticated instrumentation that could conclusively identify beryllium diffusion. About half of the stones submitted to the Emteem lab are believed to be of African origin (M. T.M. Haris, pers. comm. 2014). We also stopped at the gem market in Ratnapura on the way to several nearby gem-mining operations. This market is active daily from 6:00 a. m. to 4:00 p. m. Like Beruwala, this market was bustling on the streets and in dealer offices (figure 24). While the streets were crowded with dealers, the market was spread out over several streets, as opposed to the single block in Beruwala. Ratnapura had numerous small traditional cutting operations. Like Beruwala, transactions were happening all over the street, particularly between Sri Lankan dealers. The market at Ratnapura is centered in one of the countryrsquos major gem sources and offered plentiful rough from the nearby mines and other areas (figure 25). There was also an abundance of cut stones for sale. Some foreign buyers on the street dealt directly with local miners, but most transactions were between Sri Lankan miners and dealers. We saw the same dealers attending different markets. Consulting for Foreign Buyers. One growing trend is for foreign buyers to work with Sri Lankan dealers to develop long-term supply chain management. The foreign dealers can arrange to have a variety of goods brought to their local contactrsquos office, allowing them to see much more inventory during a trip. The local dealer puts the word out to suppliers for the type of material required. Dealers bring their goods to the office for inspection by the foreign buyer. Prospective sellers are screened, making the transaction process more organized and less of a selling frenzy. Once the price is negotiated, the rest of the logisticsmdashpayment for the stones, export requirements, and shipping if requiredmdashare handled by the local contact, who receives a set commission from the seller. Besides convenience, this arrangement offers several other benefits. The local contact can give expert advice on recutting, including the difference in carat weight and price per carat. They can also recommend an acceptable counteroffer and give an expert opinion on the nature of the material (figure 26). This system minimizes risk, as the local contact stands behind the goods they have brought to the foreign buyer. For extra assurance, they can have the stones checked by a gemologist before the buyer leaves the country. Colombo is a hub for such services, and this same expertise and assurance is sought by foreign buyers in Sri Lankan mining areas and street markets. Figure 26. Local dealers with decades of experience provide invaluable consultation to foreign buyers on recutting stones and purchasing rough material. Photo by Andrew Lucas. Imports and Exports. Sri Lankarsquos import policies have been greatly simplified, making the process much easier and more cost-effective. For a US200 charge, rough, preformed, and cut stones can be imported for cutting, recutting, and heat treatment. The flat rate charge is assessed regardless of quantity and value. As of 2013, foreign customers buying gemstones parcels valued at over US200,000 are expedited through customs so they can board their flight with minimum processing. The export fee for these parcels is a flat rate of 1,500. Parcels valued below US200,000 require about two hours to be processed by the NGJA for export (A. Iqbal, pers. comm. 2014). Buying on the Secondary Market. Because Sri Lanka has been supplying sapphire, catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl, and other gemstones to the global market for so long, many dealers have decades of experience and an international clientele. Having maintained relationships with their customers, they know where to find important stones that were sold years before. They can contact their clients and act as brokers to resell the gemstones, making a substantial profit for both parties. As global wealth shifts toward China, previous customers in Japan and the West have become sources of fine-quality gemstones for this secondary market. These stones may be recut to more contemporary proportion and symmetry standards, and sapphires that were heated 30 years ago can be retreated using modern technology. A couple of decades ago, Sri Lankan dealers would attend exhibitions and trade shows in Japan and the United States to sell gemstones. Now some of them go to buy gemstones for recutting, heat treatment, and resale in the Chinese market. HEAT TREATMENT Sri Lanka is highly regarded for its heat treatment expertise (figure 27). Those who perform heat treatment, called burners, are known for their ability to get the finest blue color out of a sapphire. They typically use a two-part process, a combination of gas and electric furnaces. The second burn, in the electric furnace, refines the blue color, often achieving a much more valuable color. Some other countries that treat sapphire send their heated material to Sri Lanka for the second burn (A. Iqbal, pers. comm. 2014). Figure 27. Rough sold in mine-area markets can be dramatically improved through heat treatment. It takes considerable experience to predict the change in value. Photo by Andrew Lucas. We visited one burner in Beruwala who heated blue sapphire from Sri Lanka and Madagascar in a gas furnace. The stones were heated to approximately 1600degC to 1700degC for four hours in an aluminum oxide crucible with a reducing atmosphere. For yellow Sri Lankan sapphires, the burner used an oxidizing atmosphere at approximately 1600degC for six hours. No compounds or fluxes were used in the crucible. The gas furnace is typically a Lakmini furnace, which has an alumina chamber covered in insulation and a stainless steel exterior, a water cooling system, two gas flow meters, two thermocouples and temperature indicators (digital or analog), a view hole, and an inlet top feed for an additional gas such as nitrogen or hydrogen (M. Hussain, pers. comm. 2014). An atmosphere rich in carbon dioxide is reported to work best for geuda sapphires, turning them transparent and blue (Kuriyan, 1994). Clients typically bring mixed parcels of sapphires in different colors. The burner will divide the lot by color and type of sapphire and the desired result, and then advise the client of the different heating processes and what can be expected after treatment. Most stones brought to the burner are in the preform stage, so most of the inclusions that could cause damage are already cut away. Treatment in the gas furnace is almost always followed by heating in an electric oven to further improve the color (M. Hussain, pers. comm. 2014). Expertise in heat treatment has also made Sri Lankans more competitive in buying rough from Africa and other sources. Some African blue sapphire, especially from Madagascar, is similar to Sri Lankan geuda material (F. Rehan, pers. comm. 2014). In value terms, the effect of modern heat treatment is tremendous. One Sri Lankan burner can reportedly take light blue sapphire with silk inclusions causing a foggy appearance, valued at US300 per carat for a 10 ct stone, and heat it to a transparent fine blue color valued at US2,000 per carat. This burner asks for one-third the value of the heated stone rather than a flat fee (N. Sammoon, pers. comm. 2014). JEWELRY MANUFACTURING As with gemstone cutting, there are both traditional and modern methods for jewelry manufacture. Both approaches are used in Sri Lanka, though some metals and styles are more suited to modern manufacturing. Mass-production techniques give some companies a competitive advantage by lowering costs. Jewelry made in Sri Lanka is targeted to the domestic retail market and to Sri Lankans living abroad. Manufacturing for export and for the emerging tourist industry is expected to grow. Traditional 22K Gold Jewelry Manufacturing. The 22K gold jewelry manufactured in Sri Lanka is alloyed to have a slightly more reddish yellow color than similar goods from India, Singapore, Dubai, and Turkey. This is accomplished by using a slightly higher percentage of copper and a lower percentage of silver in the alloy. In countless small workshops in Colombo and other areas of Sri Lanka, 22K gold jewelry is manufactured using time-honored and modern methods. We witnessed many of these shops in Colombo and during an extensive tour of the Sujitha Jewellery workshop on the famous hub of Sea Street. While small by global standards, this was one of the larger facilities we observed. They worked primarily with 22K gold and created traditional styles. About a dozen jewelers were working in small rooms that made very efficient use of space. The jewelers sat on the floor as they fabricated by hand. Many of them were shirtless due to the heat. They bent and formed metal with pliers, filed, sawed, polished with flex shafts and traditional leather strips embedded with polishing compounds, and soldered. Most used jewelerrsquos torches, but one still preferred a blowpipe for soldering (figure 28). Equipment such as a hand-powered rolling mill and draw plate was used to make gold sheet and wire. Figure 28. This jeweler preferred the traditional blowpipe for soldering 22K gold jewelry. His ability to control the direction and intensity of the flame was remarkable. Photos by Andrew Lucas. Modern Jewelry Manufacturing. In contrast to these traditional shops are modern facilities where technology has been embraced by the Sri Lankan jewelry manufacturing industry. Large-capacity vacuum casters imported from Italy can handle numerous waxes for mass production of both 22K gold jewelry and more contemporary pieces in 18K gold, white gold, platinum, or even silver. Other technologies such as casting diamonds in place, laser welding (instead of soldering), stamping or die striking, machining, and CADCAMmdashthe methods used in manufacturing centers such as Italy, China, and Indiamdashhave been adopted by progressive Sri Lankan jewelry manufacturers (figure 29). Figure 29. CADCAM is used for all styles of Sri Lankan jewelry design, even traditional 22K gold jewelry. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery. We visited the modern factory of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery in Colombo. The company manufactures jewelry primarily for its retail store and online business, which also serves overseas clients. The spacious facility handled all types of gold alloys, silver, and platinum, but a large part of the production consisted of 22K gold jewelry. While the factory incorporated methods such as lost-wax casting and die striking, there were also jewelers working on hand fabrication using traditional forming techniques, albeit at modern jewelerrsquos benches. Besides traditional 22K gold jewelry for the domestic market, modern jewelry manufacturing is also being adopted by colored stone cutting and trading companies who are moving into finished jewelry. Customers from the United States and other developed markets are increasingly purchasing Sri Lankan jewelry with mounted colored stones (S. Ramesh Khanth, N. Seenivasagam, and N. S. Vasu, pers. comms. 2014). Jewelry that can be designed and custom-made to specifications is also manufactured in Sri Lanka. One of Sri Lankarsquos leading retailers and jewelry exporters, Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery is also one of its most progressive manufacturers. Along with mass-market 22K gold jewelry, they manufacture a full range of styles, including gemstone, synthetic gemstone, white gold, and platinum jewelry (figure 30). To safeguard against cross-contamination, tools such as files, polishing wheels, and burs are dedicated solely to platinum manufacturing. Figure 30. While 22K gold jewelry represents the mainstream in Sri Lanka, contemporary jewelers also sell white metal and gem-set jewelry, such as the earrings and ring worn by this model. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery. In 1990, Wellawatta Nithyakalyani invested in a vacuum casting machine from Italy. The few other casting operations in existence used centrifugal casting. This machine gave the company an advantage in capacity, speed, and cost of producing jewelry for its retail store. In terms of consistency, vacuum casting lowered the weight variation of pieces from about 10 with hand fabrication to less than 1. Today, the factory incorporates hand fabrication, wax carving, casting, stamping, and various settings such as prong, bead, paveacute, and channel. Wellawatta Nithyakalyanirsquos manufacturing methods are becoming more modernized and cost-effective. Even though hand fabrication costs remain relatively low in Sri Lanka, the competitive market and low margins for 22K jewelry have led to the widespread use of casting (figure 31) and stamping. Companies that manufacture and sell directly to retail customers have a distinct advantage, as they can eliminate distribution costs for this low-markup jewelry. Figure 31. These wax carvings are being fine-tuned to make master models from which tens of thousands of pieces can be reproduced. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery. The company focuses its retail efforts on women and middle - to upper-class consumers in Colombo and its suburbs, where the countryrsquos strongest jewelry market exists. The precious metal weight of its jewelry ranges from one gram to over 100 grams in a single piece, catering to a broad span of income. Wellawatta Nithyakalyani also manufactures and retails jewelry set with diamonds, colored gemstones, cubic zirconia, and crystal glass. This includes white precious metals, 18K gold, and traditional 22K gold used for weddings and as financial assets. The 22K gold wedding necklaces generally range from US450 to 4,500. Between its manufacturing and retail operations, the company staffs about 115 employees, representing a cross-section of Sri Lankarsquos ethnic and religious groups. Its two full-time designers have degrees in architecture and are trained in jewelry design using CADCAM. Most of Wellawatta Nithyakalyanirsquos export business is for mass-produced lines of jewelry sold in high volume. These are shipped to retailers in Canada, UK, Switzerland, Australia, and Dubai, where they are usually purchased by Sri Lankans living abroad. These expatriates also buy jewelry, especially diamond and gemstone merchandise, when they return to Sri Lanka for holidays. In addition, the companyrsquos website offers an extensive line of jewelry directly to retail customers worldwide. Another company that encompasses the manufacturing-to-retail value chain can be found on Sea Street, home of Ravi Jewellers. The company, founded in the 1960s by Ravi Samaranayake as a small traditional 22K gold jewelry retailer, has operated continuously for almost 50 years. Today, the firm is involved in jewelry manufacturing, creating jewelry of all styles sold directly to retail customers (figure 32). Figure 32. Sri Lankan retailers needed a large inventory for their customers to choose from. Box after box of 22K gold and other types of jewelry would be brought out for customers. Photo by Andrew Lucas courtesy of Ravi Jewellers. With its modern manufacturing capability, Ravi Jewellers also sells wholesale to other retailers throughout Sri Lanka. This demonstrates another emerging trend where companies that cover the manufacturing-to-retail value chain sell wholesale to smaller domestic retailers. Their manufacturing division also allows them to provide an extensive custom design service to their retail clients and on the wholesale level to other retailers, a business model that creates a competitive advantage. In addition to being the Sri Lankan agent for Swarovski synthetic cubic zirconia, the company markets Italian alloys and serves as an official currency exchange to accommodate tourists. It has even ventured into selling gold bullion purchased in Dubai. For all its modernization and expansion of services, Ravi Jewellers remains a family business, typical of the Sri Lankan industry. JEWELRY RETAIL Sri Lanka has a thriving domestic retail jewelry industry. Its dynamics are different from those of Western jewelry markets and even elsewhere in Asia. Its retail industry is strongly influenced by jewelryrsquos role in Sri Lanka as an investment and hedge against economic uncertainty, the tradition of gold wedding jewelry, the preferences of religious groups, the tourist trade, the Western tendencies of younger consumers, and the lack of emphasis on gemstones in jewelry. Jewelry as a Financial Asset. The use of gold jewelry for financial security is a tradition among many Sri Lankans. As one European gem dealer noted, they are more practical than Western jewelry buyers, who purchase luxury branded products as status symbols that lose most of their value immediately. When there is ample income, Sri Lankans typically buy gold jewelry that can be converted to cash during difficult economic times. The pawn industry is a major component of the Sri Lankan economy, and most major banks issue loans with jewelry as collateral. The loans are based almost entirely on the commodity value of the gold, with heavier 22K pieces receiving the highest loan value. Some of the countryrsquos major banks have anywhere from 17 to 40 of their lending portfolios concentrated in gold jewelry as collateral (A. P. Jayarajah, pers. comm. 2014). Many lower - to middle-class Sri Lankans use pawn shops for 22K gold jewelry loans, receiving instant cash for 75 to 80 of the gold value. Most of these pieces are heavy, from about 80 to 160 grams. Clients generally redeem their items within six months to a year and pay a slight interest charge. Men tend to pawn jewelry more than women (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). During the height of the gold market, when prices soared to more than US1,700 an ounce, the lending industry became very competitive and pawn shops were offering around 90 of the gold value of jewelry. Many consumers did not redeem their jewelry at these loan values, and when the price of gold fell, the pawn shops lost substantial collateral value. Wedding Jewelry. For most jewelers in Sri Lanka, the wedding business is arguably the most important. Although jewelry trends inevitably change, gold is an essential component of a Sri Lankan wedding. Jewelry is given to the bride and the groom, as well as the bridal party. Around 80 of this wedding jewelry is for the bride, though jewelry purchases for the groom are on the rise (V. Rishanthan, pers. comms. 2014). Traditional 22K gold jewelry remains the wedding jewelry of choice, and it is still used as a dowry in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankans comprise many of the major religions: Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. Each religion has its own style of jewelry, especially for weddings, with differences both subtle and obvious (A. P. Jayarajah and V. Rishanthan, pers. comms. 2014). Hindus tend to wear larger, heavier jewelry of a more Indian style, and designs are often based on what is popular in India (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). In Hindu weddings, the bride is given substantial amounts of 22K gold jewelry, including a thick Thali necklace (often weighing between 80 and 250 grams) and longer chains, as well as bangle bracelets. The groom usually receives one simple ring. The bridesmaids and the groomrsquos mother and sisters also receive 22K gold jewelry, making Hindu weddings a major jewelry purchasing event in Sri Lanka. Buddhists use both rings and necklaces for weddings, often with more floral and classic Sinhalese designs. Sinhalese Buddhists tend to choose lighter, more delicate designs than Hindus for weddings. Brides are presented with a ring, necklace, bangle, and matching earrings in their wedding sets, and the groom receives a gold ring. Still, most Buddhist weddings do not involve as much gold jewelry as Hindu weddings. In addition to the Thali, Sri Lankarsquos Christian community uses rings for the bride and groom. Whereas Hindu Thali necklaces often incorporate a square shape with a symbol of Vishnu inside, Christian Thali designs feature the Bible or a heart shape with a dove. Muslims tend to buy larger and heavier bangle bracelets than the Hindus, Buddhists, or Christians. Sri Lankan retailers immediately know the ethnicity and religion of their customers by observing the jewelry they wear into the store. Of the more than 3,500 bangle bracelets in Wellawatta Nithyashykalyanirsquos product lines, around 95 of these are 22K gold. This is the bracelet of choice in the Muslim community, whose women display their bangles stacked on the arm. Muslim brides also receive a Thali and a large chain, matching earrings, and engagement necklace. Grooms often prefer a white metal for their ring. Expatriate and Tourist Trade. The strong tie between Sri Lankans and their jewelry is not confined to the island. Sri Lankans living abroad, many of whom left during the civil war, purchase traditional jewelry when returning to their native land. The month of August is especially busy for Sri Lankan retailers, as many expatriates living in Europe return for vacation (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). They will plan out and purchase all the jewelry gifts needed for the entire year, such as weddings, birthdays, and other occasions. Again, most of them choose traditional 22K gold jewelry based on ethnic or religious heritage. Since the end of the civil war in 2009, tourism has been growing. With over one million tourists in 2013 and an expected doubling of that figure in 2014, retailers noted a dramatic impact on sales. Many of these tourists are Sri Lankans living abroad, but retailers are seeing more European, Australian, American, and especially Chinese visitors. The countryrsquos jewelry industry is working to brand Ceylon sapphires, which are sold in boutiques of major hotels (A. Iqbal, pers. comm. 2014). Retailers are reporting the positive effects of tourism on sapphire jewelry sales. Global awareness of Sri Lankan sapphires was also heightened in October 2010, when Great Britainrsquos Prince William gave Kate Middleton a Sri Lankan blue sapphire engagement ringmdashthe same ring worn by his mother, Diana, Princess of Wales. According to officials from the NGJA and the International Colored Gemstone Association (ICA), demand for Sri Lankan blue sapphires in engagement rings rose sharply in the West and in China. Sea Street. One of the most important areas for Colomborsquos jewelry trade is near the harbor on Sea Street. The Sea Street jewelry trade was started in the early 1900s by the Chettiar community, a Hindu caste originating in southern India. They are known as a mercantile class of businesspeople and bankers. The Chettiar merchants were involved in money lending, largely with jewelry as collateral. Over time, this led to the development of jewelry retail, wholesale, and manufacturing businesses on Sea Street. By the 1950s, the district had become the major jewelry hub of Sri Lanka, focusing on 22K gold. There are still Chettiar temples on Sea Street today, though much of the community has returned to India (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). While Sea Street remains the countryrsquos jewelry hub, the rest of the country has seen significant retail and wholesale growth since the end of the civil war. Sea Street often supplies these new retailers with wholesale jewelry and manufacturing, or with specialized services such as stone setting, laser welding, and plating. In return, small local manufacturers throughout Sri Lanka supply finished jewelry to Sea Street retailers (V. Rishanthan, pers. comm. 2014). Figure 33. Sea Street is a concentrated center of retailers, pawn shops, and jewelry manufacturers. Photo by Andrew Lucas. Walking down the few blocks of Sea Street, you see hundreds of jewelry stores and pawn shops (figure 33). Closer examination reveals that some of the storefronts lead to complexes divided into 50 to 100 very small shops, some just 10 by 10 meters. Within these shops, jewelry is crafted using traditional methods. Much of the manufacturing on Sea Street consists of family businesses that continue from one generation to the next. Gemstone Jewelry Market. While Sri Lanka is known all over the world as an abundant supplier of sapphire and other colored gemstones, the local market for gemstone jewelry is surprisingly weak. Much of the domestic demand is for 22K gold jewelry without gemstones. Even more interesting is the Sri Lankan preference for synthetic cubic zirconia and crystal glass in jewelry. This is directly related to the custom of buying jewelry as much for financial security as for personal adornment. Sri Lankans can always go to a pawn shop or bank and receive a high percentage of the gold value in their jewelry as a loan. Once gemstones are added to the jewelry, it becomes more difficult to receive a loan value close to the cost of the piece. The gemstone value is not as liquid and cannot be assigned a market value for a loan. As a low-cost alternative to add color and sparkle to their jewelry, many Sri Lankans opt for cubic zirconia and crystal glass (figure 34). For instance, a 22K gold bracelet set with CZ might cost US500 at Wellawatta Nithyakalyani, compared to US5,000 for a comparable bracelet set with good-quality natural diamonds. Unlike consumers in the West or Japan and China, Sri Lankans see little reason to spend the difference. For mass-market 22K gold jewelry, most consumers only allow the addition of gemstones up to 25 above the price of the gold. After that, there is price resistance. Sri Lankans are often willing to spend more on gemstones in 18K gold jewelrymdashapproximately 40 above the gold valuemdashand even more for platinum jewelry. But this custom is slowly changing, and the market for natural colored gemstones and diamonds set in jewelry is growing, especially among upper-income and young consumers. Figure 34. Many retail stores offer gold jewelry with less-expensive Swarovski crystal and cubic zirconia to add color and sparkle. Photo by Andrew Lucas. Younger Consumers. V. Rishanthan, director of Ravi Jewellers, compared the buying preferences of his motherrsquos generation and his wifersquos generation. His motherrsquos generation, composed of women in their sixties, prefers large sets of 22K gold jewelry and substantial pieces weighing 40 to 80 grams. These impressive sets are reserved for special occasions such as weddings, birthdays, and visits to the temple. The rest of the time, such jewelry is kept in a safe or other secure location. This generation also views jewelry as a commodity that can be readily pawned for cash. Rishanthanrsquos wife, representing the younger generation of women in their twenties and thirties, prefers lighter jewelry, such as necklaces weighing around 8 to 10 grams. His wife may own ten lighter pendants while his mother may have only two much heavier pendants. Younger women are very aware of jewelryrsquos financial uses but want to wear it every day, in a variety of fashionable styles. Another trend among younger Sri Lankans is to resell their jewelry back to a store within six months to a year to trade it in for a new style. So while younger consumers may be buying lighter jewelry, they are buying more pieces and constantly exchanging them for new styles, creating more opportunities for the Sri Lankan retail industry. These younger consumers pay close attention to design trends and up-and-coming designers (V. Rishanthan, R. Samaranayake, J. Sasikumaran, and Y. P. Sivakumar, pers. comms. 2014). The younger generation is also far more open to other gold alloys such as 18K, and they are especially fond of white metals such as platinum, white gold, and silver. Still, the sentimental and investment aspects of 22K yellow gold jewelry are not lost on the new generation of Sri Lankan consumers. Younger men are buying more jewelry for themselves, and these still tend to be heavier pieces. With their preference for modern designs, younger consumers also buy more jewelry with diamonds (especially smaller ones) and colored gemstones, usually set in white metal. Blue sapphire is quite popular. Synthetic cubic zirconia or crystal glass can also be used to achieve the desired color. As with yellow gold jewelry, these white metal pieces tend to be lightweight. CONCLUSION Our expedition to Sri Lanka took us through all sectors of the colored gemstone and jewelry industry. While other reports have tended to focus on mining or treatment, very few have tackled the entire scope of the Sri Lankan industry. Over the course of two weeks, we witnessed mining operations, traditional and modern cutting, trading, treatment, and retail. The resulting documentation revealed a very vibrant industry across all sectors and allowed us to construct a complete picture. The changes over the last decade have been significant. Modernized cutting has allowed Sri Lanka to produce precision cuts of the highest caliber. Meanwhile, traditional cutting continues to incorporate centuries of experience orienting sapphire, catrsquos-eye chrysoberyl, and other colored stones for color and weight retention. Mining is still aggressively pursued but mostly by small-scale operations, helping to preserve the environment and gem resources so more Sri Lankans have more opportunities to strike it rich. A wealth of trade expertise gives Sri Lanka a competitive advantage as it looks to expand its share of the global gem market. Many foreign buyers consult with local dealers on purchasing decisions and the potential benefits of recutting and heat treatment. Rough stones imported from other global sources fuel the value-added industries of cutting and treatment. With decades of trading experience and a global client list, Sri Lankan dealers know where to find important stones for the growing secondary market, particularly in China. Meanwhile, trade organizations such as the National Gem and Jewellery Association and the National Gem and Jewellery Authority are working on a bilateral trade agreement that could eliminate import tariffs on colored gemstones entering China from Sri Lanka (R. Kamil, pers. comm. 2014). Jewelry manufacturing is another sector that incorporates both traditional and modern techniques. Most of the manufacturing is to satisfy consumer demand for 22K gold jewelry, as a wedding gift and as a financial asset, at home and in Sri Lankan communities around the world. Younger consumers are demanding contemporary styles, new metals and alloys, and a greater use of gemstones. A growing tourist industry is also influencing Sri Lankan jewelry manufacture. Figure 35. The Sri Lankan retail industry hopes to maintain the traditional market in 22K gold jewelry while developing new products to meet the tastes of future generations. Photo by Andrew Lucas. With rapid economic development since the end of the civil war in 2009, the Sri Lankan gem and jewelry industry could see dramatic growth, albeit at a much smaller scale than in neighboring India. Some of this growth is already happening in the diamond jewelry market, which has long been hindered by consumersrsquo limited purchasing power and the tradition of pawning jewelry for the commodity value of the precious metals. It remains to be seen whether Sri Lankan demand for contemporary jewelry featuring diamonds, colored stones, and alternative precious metals will match the popularity of 22K gold jewelry (figure 35). The islandrsquos gem and jewelry industry displays remarkable vitality and ambition for growth. With the ICA Congress coming to Colombo in 2015, the influx of foreign buyers to the annual Facets Sri Lanka show, and a stronger presence at trade shows in China, the Sri Lankan industry is striving for greater international recognition. About the Authors Mr. Lucas is manager of field gemology, Dr. Hsu is technical editor of Gems Gemology . and Mr. Padua is video producer, at GIA in Carlsbad, California. Mr. Sammoon is a member of the board of directors of the National Gem and Jewellery Authority, chairman of the Sapphire Capital Group, chairman of foreign promotions and deputy chairman of Facets Sri Lanka of the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association. Mr. Jayarajah is CEO of Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery and chairman of the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the following members of the Sri Lankan gemstone and jewelry industry for all their support and sharing their experience and knowledge: Shamil Sammoon (Sapphire Capital Group) Naji Sammoon (Sapphire Cutters Ltd.) Faiq Rehan (Precision Lapidaries) Sujitha Traditional Jewellery Ravi Samaranayake and V. Rishanthan (Ravi Jewellers) Y. P. Sivakumar and J. Sasikumaran (Wellawatta Nithyakalyani Jewellery) Prof. P. G.R. Dharmaratne (former chairman, National Gem and Jewellery Authority) Ajith Siriwardena (deputy superintendent of Customs) Saman K. Amarasena (Swiss Cut Lapidary) A. H.M. Imtizam (Gem Paradise) H. C.J. Bandara N. Seenivasagam and N. S. Vasu (Devi Jewellers) S. Ramesh Khanth (Devi Gold Cast) M. S.M Fazli (Saleems Limited) Juzar Adamaly and Roshen Weereratne (Facets Sri Lanka) Aly Farook Ruzwan Kamil (MSM Kamil Exporter of Fine Gemstones) W. D. Nandasari (Sapphire Gems) Nabeel Salie (FJC The Fine Jewellery Company) Altaf Iqbal (Regal Gems) M. Hussain M. T.M Haris (Emteem Gem Laboratory) and M. L.M. Sanoon (San Gems). The National Gem and Jewellery Authority of Sri Lanka, the Sri Lanka Gem and Jewellery Association, and the International Colored Gemstone Association provided access to and understanding of the countrys industry. References Ariyaratna D. H. (2013) Gems of Sri Lanka . 7th ed. AampB Graphics Nawinna, Maharagama, Sri Lanka. China becoming Sri Lankarsquos top gem buyer from emerging markets (2011) Xinhua News Agency, news. xinhuanetenglish2010 china2011-0915c131141158.htm date accessed: Oct. 10, 2014. CIA World Fact Book (2014) South Asia: Sri Lanka, ww w. cia. govlibrarypublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosce. html. Cooray P. G. (1994) The Precambrian of Sri Lanka: A historical review. Precambrian Research . Vol. 66, No. 1ndash4, pp. 3ndash18, dx. doi. org10.10160301-9268(94)90041-8. Dharmaratne P. G.R. (2002) Gem mining and sustainable environmental management in Sri Lanka . Journal of Gemmology . Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 153ndash161. Dharmaratne P. G.R. Ranjith Premasiri H. M. Dillimuni D. (2012) Sapphires from Thammannawa, Kataragama area, Sri Lanka. GampG . Vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 98ndash107, dx. doi. org10.5741 GEMS.48.2.98. Dissanayake C. B. (1986 ) Preliminary Assessment of the Gem Potential of Sri Lanka . Economic Development Board (EDB), Colombo, Sri Lanka, p. 160. Dissanayake C. B. Chandrajith R. (2003) Gem-Bearing Stream Sediments of Sri Lanka Geology and Geochemistry . Gem and Jewellery Research and Training Institute and the National Gem and Jewellery Authority, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Groat L. A. Giuliani G. (2014) Geology of Gem Deposits . Second Edition, Short Course Series Volume 44, Chapter 2: The Geology and Genesis of Corundum Deposits, Mineralogical Association of Canada, p. 95. Grunow A. Hanson R. Wilson T. (1996) Were aspects of Pan-African deformation linked to Iapetus opening Geology . Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. 1063ndash1066, dx. doi. org10.11300091-7613(1996)0241063:WAOPAD2.3.CO2. Hughes R. W. (1997) Ruby amp Sapphire . RWH Publishing, Boulder, CO. Hughes R. W. (2014) Ruby amp Sapphire: A Collectorrsquos Guide . Gem and Jewelry Institute of Thailand, Bangkok. Kroumlner A. (1991) African linkage of Precambrian Sri Lanka. Geologische Rundschau . Vol. 80, No. 2, pp. 429ndash440, dx. doi. org10.1007BF01829375. Kroumlner A. Williams I. S. (1993) Age of metamorphism in the high-grade rocks of Sri Lanka. Journal of Geology . Vol. 101, No. 4, pp. 513ndash521, dx. doi. org10.1086648243. Kuriyan V. (1994) Sri Lankarsquos growing heat treatment expertise. ICA Gazette . April, pp. 8ndash9. Li Z. X. Bogdanova S. V. Collins A. S. Davidson A. De Waele B. Ernst R. E. Fitzsimons I. C.W. Fuck R. A. Gladkochub D. P., Jacobs J. Karlstrom K. E. Lu S. Natapov L. M. Peace V., Pisarevsky S. A. Thrane K. Vernikovsky V. (2008) Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: A synthesis. Precambrian Research . Vol. 160, No. 1ndash2, pp. 179ndash210, dx. doi. org10.1016j. precamres.2007.04.021. McMenamin M. A.S. McMenamin D. L.S. (1990) The Emergence of Animals: The Cambrian Breakthrough . Columbia University Press, New York. Mahroof M. M.M. (1997) Corundum in Sri Lanka: Its historical and social role. Part 1. The Canadian Gemmologist . Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 111ndash116. Mendis D. P.J. Rupasinghe M. S. Dissanayake C. B. (1993) Application of structural geology in the exploration for residual gem deposits of Sri Lanka. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Finland . Vol. 65, pp. 31ndash40. Milisenda C. C. Liew T. C. Hofmann A. W. Kroumlner A. (1988) Isotopic mapping of age provinces in Precambrian high-grade terranes: Sri Lanka. Journal of Geology . Vol. 96, No. 5, pp. 608ndash615, dx. doi. org10.1086629256. Pardieu V. (2012) Sapphire rush near Kataragama, Sri Lanka. GIA News from Research . giathaipdfKataragama. pdf. Rino S. Kon T. Sato W. Maruyama S. Santosh M. Zhao D. (2008). The Grenvillian and Pan-African orogens: Worldrsquos largest orogenies through geologic time, and their implications on the origin of superplume. Gondwana Research . Vol. 14, No. 1ndash2, pp. 51ndash72, dx. doi. org10.1016j. gr.2008.01.001. Sajeev K. Osanai Y. (2004) Ultrahigh-temperature metamorphism (1150degC, 12thinspkbar) and multistage evolution of Mg-, Al-rich granulites from the Central Highland Complex, Sri Lanka. Journal of Petrology . Vol. 45, No. 9, pp. 1821ndash1844, dx. doi. org10.1093petrologyegh035. Zwaan P. C. (1982) Sri Lanka: The gem island. GampG . Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 62ndash71, dx. doi. org10.5741GEMS.18.2.62. Zwaan P. C. (1986) Gem minerals from the Embilipitiya and Kataragama areas in Sri Lanka. The Australian Gemmologist . Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 35ndash40.